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Africa is a rising “multipolar continent” the place established and rising extra-regional powers are vying for business achieve and geopolitical affect. Turkey has figured prominently on this third surge of overseas curiosity in Africa.[1] Rooted in a redefinition of the nation’s position in worldwide affairs and a convergence of pursuits between state and enterprise elites, Turkey has developed an more and more dense community of ties throughout a number of dimensions all through Africa.[2]
The rising enterprise quantity of Turkish corporations in African development markets is illustrative of the progress Turkey has made in securing a robust foothold on the continent. Though Chinese language state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are by far Africa’s largest builders,[3] Turkish development corporations have established themselves as succesful and aggressive gamers not simply within the Maghreb however in Sub-Saharan markets as effectively.
The Turkish development {industry} expands overseas
Turkey’s development and contracting {industry} has been on the forefront of the nation’s financial improvement. The sector accounts for about 6% of the general gross home product (GDP) and employs 1.5 million individuals. Its share of the general economic system is almost 30% when factoring within the direct and oblique impacts on associated industries resembling development equipment, constructing supplies, engineering, and structure.
It has been 5 many years since Turkish contractors entered the worldwide market. In 1972, Libya turned the primary nation to which Turkish contractors exported their companies.[4] Between then and April 2022, Turkish development companies carried out 11,243 tasks in 131 nations with a complete venture worth of $435 billion.[5] With 40 companies among the many high international corporations, based mostly on revenues generated from abroad tasks, Turkey positioned third after China (78) and the USA (41) within the Engineering Information-Document (ENR) 2022 Prime 250 Worldwide Contractors checklist.[6]
Over time, the pursuit of enterprise alternatives in overseas markets by Turkish corporations has been each a development and a danger mitigation technique, spurred by stagnant home market circumstances and fortuitous circumstances in addition to by unexpected antagonistic developments within the markets of operation.[7] On a number of events, extreme financial contractions and ensuing bottlenecks within the home development sector have impelled Turkish contractors to pay attention extra on enterprise overseas. This was the case within the early Nineteen Seventies, when the depressed dwelling market coincided with the booming demand for development companies within the oil-rich MENA area. It was additionally the case within the wake of the 2001 financial disaster, when lowered enterprise alternatives in Turkey pressured certified corporations out of the home market and turned their consideration to potential enterprise alternatives overseas.[8]
The development {industry} was among the many worst hit by a extreme financial downturn sparked by the Turkish foreign money disaster in 2018,[9] which despatched development prices hovering, inflicting builders to postpone some tasks and sluggish the tempo of others. Turkey’s economic system was simply starting to get well earlier than the fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic dragged it again into troubled waters, undermining the development sector’s restoration at dwelling and overseas.[10]
Turkish corporations have additionally needed to deal with unexpected challenges in markets the place that they had established a foothold. The Russian monetary meltdown in 1998 led to the suspension of Turkish development tasks. The flattening of oil costs and the calamitous 1990-1991 Gulf Conflict took their toll on Turkish corporations working within the Gulf, a few of which have been pressured out of business. Turkish development actions in Russia slumped once more in late 2016, as a consequence of political tensions between Moscow and Ankara. Across the similar time, Turkish corporations that had gained prominence within the Iraqi market have been sidelined owing to strained relations between the pro-Sunni Erdoğan and Shiite-led al-Maliki administrations.[11]
But, Turkish corporations’ opportunism, risk-taking, and resilience has nonetheless paid off. Feeding off the regional development growth within the Center East within the Nineteen Seventies, they concentrated their actions in 5 oil-producing nations: Libya, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, and Iran. When the Iran-Iraq battle (1980-1988) got here to an finish, Turkish contractors elevated their quantity of labor in Iraq.[12] Regardless of the collapse of the Russian economic system in 1998, they remained on the forefront of the development market, taking a number one position in lots of landmark tasks.[13] Actually, Turkish corporations have repeatedly rebounded from antagonistic market circumstances. The latest instance was final 12 months when, recovering from the pandemic-induced droop, the Turkish development sector almost doubled the quantity of its abroad tasks.[14] The development {industry}’s worldwide venture portfolio dimension has saved on rising, and the Turkish labor power employed in abroad tasks has risen from 35,000 to 100,000.[15]
Turkish contractors’ capacity to outlive throughout recessions and obtain regular development regardless of market downturns shouldn’t be merely a matter of excellent fortune however is attributable to their versatile methods, comparative benefits, and rising capabilities. Turkish contractors entered the worldwide market as low-cost bidders to win tenders. By the late Eighties, nonetheless, that they had begun to capitalize on the fast assimilation of expertise derived from their partnerships with worldwide companies and emerged as a big power within the Center East and North Africa.[16]
Initially having served as sub-contractors, they progressively moved into administration consultancy, turnkey venture implementation, and three way partnership funding;[17] and graduated from labor intensive and small-scale, to technology-oriented and large-scale tasks.[18] They diversified into international companies resembling banking, tourism, development supplies, and cement manufacturing. And so they seized alternatives to penetrate new markets, notably Russia and Central Asia following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Along with diversifying their abroad markets, Turkish contractors have differentiated the kind of work they carry out. [See Chart 1.] Over time, the proportion of tasks they’ve undertaken within the housing sector, which had dominated and nonetheless constitutes a big slice of their abroad actions, has shrunk whereas the share of tasks requiring excessive experience, venture administration abilities, and superior expertise (e.g., petrochemical amenities) has risen. A number of corporations have come to concentrate on venture sorts resembling worldwide airports, railways, and concrete metro techniques.[19]
Chart 2. Worldwide Actions by Kind of Work (2021)
Supply: Ministry of Commerce of Turkey
The sample of Turkish abroad contracting companies’ portfolios, too, has modified considerably. A few of the bigger Turkish corporations have taken on the position of traders, slightly than solely appearing as contractors. Furthermore, they’re presenting extra complete venture packages than previously: finishing up market analysis and feasibility research; getting ready the monetary bundle for the proprietor; and designing, setting up, and providing upkeep and restore companies for the ability.
The defining position of the state
Geographical proximity and cultural affinities formed Turkish corporations’ strategic decisions, facilitated their entry, and contributed to their profitable penetration of Center Jap and Eurasian markets. Equally necessary has been the position of the state. To make certain, authorities intervention within the development {industry} shouldn’t be novel, nor within the case of Turkey, is it new. However within the AKP period, the state has grow to be extra straight and extensively concerned within the sector.[20] Actually, the state has performed a defining position within the improvement and internationalization of the Turkish contracting sector, particularly over the previous twenty years — the interval when almost 90% of Turkey’s tasks overseas have been undertaken.[21]
When the Justice and Growth Celebration (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, AK Celebration) swept into workplace in 2002, the nation’s economic system was in a dire state. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, then as prime minister and later as president, has championed development because the engine of home financial development and promoted abroad development actions as a way of projecting Turkey’s picture, energy, and affect overseas.[22]
Authorities patronage has been an important consider aiding the internationalization of Turkish development service firms.[23] Development companies, particularly these aligned carefully with the AK Celebration, have been among the many most important beneficiaries of easy accessibility to credit score within the worldwide market, tax incentives and exemptions, and relaxed public procurement practices.[24] Erdoğan has personally presided over the constructing and functioning of this patronage system, actively directing funding within the housing, power, and infrastructure sectors throughout Turkey. The important thing position that the state has performed — with Erdoğan on the helm — in favoring the development sector by rewarding corporations at dwelling has been complemented by efforts to advertise abroad development throughout the context of Turkey’s assertive and expansive overseas coverage.
The diplomatic and enterprise push into Africa
In step with his imaginative and prescient of creating Turkey a significant participant on the worldwide stage, Erdoğan has presided over a multidimensional technique for the African continent. Developed throughout the framework of the “Opening to Africa Coverage” adopted in 1998, the technique is aimed toward bridging the culturally and geographically “close to” Maghreb and the “distant” Sub-Saharan Africa.[25]
Spearheading Ankara’s diplomatic and enterprise drive on the African continent, President Erdoğan, who referred to Turkey as “an Afro-Eurasian state,” has personally employed and approved using a wide range of comfortable energy instruments.[26] Quickly after Erdoğan declared 2005 the 12 months of Africa — by the way, a 12 months earlier than China did the identical —Turkey was admitted as an observer member to the African Union (AU). Three years later, the AU designated Turkey a “Strategic Companion.”
Throughout his time in energy, Erdoğan has paid 58 visits to 32 African nations.[27] Turkish Airways now flies to extra locations (61) in Africa than another airline. The variety of Turkish embassies in Africa has grown from simply 12 in 2002 to 43. The Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Company (TIKA) has arrange 22 native places of work, and the Maarif Basis operates 175 faculties in 26 nations.[28] In a bid to interact and additional enhance relations with African states, Turkey has constructed mosques and offered abroad improvement help (ODA) in addition to humanitarian help. Business counselors have been deployed throughout the continent to facilitate the Turkish enterprise group’s clean entry into African markets. Turkey has additionally solid safety ties with African companions: establishing bases in Somalia and Libya; coaching and equipping troops within the Sahel; taking part in multilateral peacekeeping operations; and promoting arms.[29]
Turkey’s development corporations are brokers in addition to beneficiaries of this multifaceted engagement. They characterize the strongest Turkish enterprise presence in Africa.[30] Most Turkish development actions have been within the Maghreb, with tasks in Algeria and Libya comprising two-thirds of complete African tasks.[31] However that image is altering. Turkish corporations have grow to be more and more energetic in Sub-Saharan Africa.[32] They’ve fanned out throughout the continent, enterprise tasks in Algeria, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Libya, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Tunisia.[33] Within the regional distribution of enterprise quantity, Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 17% of Turkish contractors’ tasks, surpassing their conventional market.[34] [See Chart 2]
Chart 2. Regional Distribution of Development Enterprise Quantity (2021)
Supply: Ministry of Commerce of Turkey
Yapı Merkezi, which has carried out 62 railway tasks on three continents, has accomplished or has tasks ongoing in Algeria, Ethiopia, Morocco, Senegal, Sudan, and Tanzania.[35] Summa İnşaat constructed the Dakar Area, Dakar Worldwide Convention Heart, the Blaise Diagne Worldwide Airport (collectively with Limak), and the airport in Diamey, Niger’s capital. The Albayrak Group constructed and runs operations at Mogadishu port in Somalia, the place it has additionally constructed roads, a hospital, and the Turkish Embassy. The handiwork of Turkish corporations is seen throughout the continent, within the type of residential and enterprise complexes, lodges, conference facilities, sports activities stadiums, buying malls, hospitals, and transportation infrastructure.[36] And because the late 2000s, a brand new wave of smaller-sized entrepreneurs has joined main Turkish companies in concentrating on Sub-Saharan African markets.[37]
Turkey’s “Third Manner”
The profitable penetration of African markets by Turkish development corporations, whereas a principally private-led enterprise, is embedded in a broader effort initiated, formed, and shepherded by the state through the AKP period, with President Erdoğan as its chief architect. Though Turkish development tasks in Africa are discrete enterprise actions, they’re nonetheless intertwined with and complement different strands of Ankara’s complete engagement technique.[38] The deployment of that technique has not occurred in a vacuum. Quite the opposite, it has taken place within the context of intensifying rivalries involving established and rising extra-regional powers. Turkey’s efforts to pursue markets, venture energy, and elevate the nation’s standing and status on the African continent mirror these aggressive dynamics — and the actions of Turkish development corporations in Africa are inseparable from them.
In making its diplomatic and company push into Africa, Turkey is working in a crowded discipline that, apart from the Western powers and Russia, consists of China, Japan, and India, to not point out the Arab Gulf states. Given this scramble for a presence and affect on the continent, it isn’t shocking that Turkey has sought to place itself as an rising international energy dedicated to and able to difficult established patterns of engagement there. Neither is it shocking that, in doing so, Turkey has offered itself as a viable various to each the Western and Chinese language fashions.
Turkey’s “third manner” combines enterprise with improvement and peace-building; shows a desire to ship help by way of bilateral slightly than multilateral channels; rejects political conditionality; and emphasizes nationwide possession.[39] It’s cloaked in a story that depicts the Ottoman interval favorably as a “consent-based” association[40] and portrays Turkey as a “rising however virtuous energy” and a “pure associate.”[41] It’s a narrative that, with its emphasis on “shared prosperity,” a “partnership of equals,” and “win-win,”[42] deploys language mirroring that of China — Turkey’s largest competitor in African development markets.
Neither Turkish nor Chinese language officers seem desperate to acknowledge publicly their intense head-to-head competitors for enterprise within the African development sector. It’s a competitors to which China, with a lot deeper pockets and having gotten an earlier begin, has dedicated far better assets than has Turkey, particularly because the launching of the Belt and Highway Initiative (BRI) in 2013. But, there have been instances the place Turkish corporations have underbid Chinese language rivals.[43] Furthermore, in settings the place they’ve operated, Turkish companies for essentially the most half have been effectively obtained, gained better visibility, and enhanced their popularity[44] — thereby arguably bettering their competitiveness.
Nonetheless, there is no such thing as a denying the large monetary capabilities that the Chinese language state has delivered to bear and stays able to deploying in help of SOEs in African development markets. It’s exactly this ingredient — financing — that has been the main issue drawback for Turkish corporations. As unbelievable as it’s that they will shut the financing hole, Turkish development companies have taken steps to slender it: choosing build-operate-transfer (BOT) and venture funding fashions (for which Chinese language corporations just lately are exhibiting much less urge for food); getting into three way partnership partnerships with overseas corporations which have entry to personal assets; and securing funds from monetary establishments such because the African Growth Financial institution (AfB) and the World Financial institution.[45]
The Türk Eximbank, regardless of its personal restricted monetary capability, has collaborated with establishments such because the Islamic Company for the Insurance coverage of Funding and Export Credit score (ICIEC) and Japan’s Nippon Export and Funding Insurance coverage (NEXI) to supply precious help to Turkish corporations in managing their publicity, overcoming danger focus, and acquiring cowl towards venture non-payment.[46] Moreover, the place they’ve competed and gained tasks towards China, resembling in Rwanda, Tanzania and Senegal, Turkish contractors have utilized funds from worldwide establishments.
The emergence of Turkey-Japan cooperation in third-country development companies is a probably vital improvement on this respect.[47] The Japan Financial institution for Worldwide Cooperation (JBIC) and Japan Exterior Commerce Group (JETRO), along with the Türk Eximbank, have been exploring methods to reinforce cooperation between Japanese and Turkish corporations in infrastructure development in Africa.[48] Aside from the potential tangible advantages that such cooperation between Turkey and Japan would possibly yield for his or her corporations and African companions is the attention-grabbing query of whether or not such efforts are indicative of a shared curiosity in countering China and never merely in increasing their very own enterprise actions in Africa.[49]
There are different intriguing prospects for third-country collaboration as effectively. Progress in Turkey’s rapprochement with a few of its Gulf Arab neighbors as a part of the broader regional realignment underway may function a catalyst not just for a revival of Turkey’s development enterprise within the Center East and the attraction of Gulf funds to home tasks but in addition for a shift from proxy political-military conflicts to third-country cooperation within the Horn of Africa and elsewhere on the continent.
There’s additionally scope for third-country collaboration between Turkey and the European Union (EU). Combining Turkey’s high-quality and cost-effective abilities within the development sector with the EU’s technical and monetary capability may pave the way in which for enterprise climate-resilient public infrastructure tasks in North Africa.[50]
Conclusion
Beneath the AK Celebration and spearheaded by President Erdoğan, Turkey has sought to current its type of engagement in Africa as a viable various to the creation of latest relations of dependence with Africa related to Western or Chinese language fashions of improvement. Turkey’s development corporations have figured prominently as brokers and beneficiaries of Turkey’s bold, multidimensional Africa technique.
Chinese language state-owned and personal enterprises dominate the financing and improvement of infrastructure and capital tasks in Africa. Nonetheless, Turkish contractors, as a part of their increasing abroad actions, have succeeded in capturing a large share and rising enterprise quantity in African development markets.
The Turkish economic system has currently encountered stiff financial headwinds. Whereas development topped 11% final 12 months, annual inflation skyrocketed to 73.5% in Might.[51] The battle in Ukraine has elevated challenges for the Turkish economic system, sending the prices of meals, power, and development supplies hovering. However it’s value mentioning that Turkish contractors have weathered earlier intervals of financial turbulence, performing effectively in abroad markets at the same time as they grappled with home challenges, and recovering from slack demand or different adversities of their markets of operation.
Turkey’s development giants are poised to stay a big power in Africa. By pursuing collaborative third-country development tasks with a number of extra-regional companions, Turkey is unlikely to supplant China as Africa’s grasp builder. Nonetheless, this strategy may assist slender Turkish contractors’ financing hole, thereby bettering their development prospects. It may additionally increase the vary of decisions for African companions in creating the sustainable and resilient infrastructure they desperately want — and in so doing, fulfill Ankara’s promise of a “third manner.”
[1] “The brand new scramble for Africa,” The Economist, March 7, 2019.
[3] Kang-Chun Chen, “China is delivering over 30% of Africa’s huge development tasks. Right here’s why.” The Africa Report, March 22, 2022, https://www.theafricareport.com/183370/china-is-delivering-over-30-of-africas-big-construction-projects-heres-why/; Charles Kenney, “Why Is China Constructing So A lot in Africa?” Heart for World Growth, February 24, 2022, https://www.cgdev.org/weblog/why-china-building-so-much-africa; Frangton Chiyemura, “Chinese language companies — and African labor — are constructing Africa’s infrastructure,” The Washington Submit, April 2, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/04/02/chinese-firms-african-labor-are-building-africas-infrastructure/.
[4] Amir Tavakoli and Sevket Can Tulumen, “Development {industry} in Turkey,” Development Administration and Economics 8, 1 (1990): 77-87; Heyecan Giritli et al., “Worldwide contracting: a Turkish perspective,” Development administration and economics 8, 4 (1990): 415-430.
[6] The Turkish contractors within the high 250 checklist: Rönesans, Limak, Ant Yapı, Yapı Merkezi, Enka, Tekfen, Onur, TAV, Nurol, Esta, Gülermak, Aslan, Sembol, Kuzu, Kolin, Yüksel, Eser, IC İçtaş, Çalık, İlk, GAP, Polat Yol, Alarko, Dekinsan, Gürbaş, Tepe, Makyol, Metag, Üstay, Yenigün, Summa İnşaat, Gama, NATA, Cengiz, MBD, Feka, IRIS, SMK, STFA, and Doğuş. See “40 Turkish companies amongst high 250 international contractors,” Hürriyet Day by day Information, August 21, 2021, https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/40-turkish-firms-among-top-250-global-contractors-167350.
[7] M. Talat Birgönül and İrem (Dikmen) Özdoğan, “Competitiveness of Turkish Contractors in Worldwide Markets,” in A. Akintoye (ed.), sixteenth Annual ARCOM Convention, September 6-8, 2000, Glasgow Caledonian College. Affiliation of Researchers in Development Administration, Vol. 1: 95-104.
[8] Heyecan Giritli et al., “Worldwide Contracting: A Turkish Perspective,” Development administration and economics 8, 4 (1990): 415-430; Ilknur Akiner and M. Ernur Akiner, “Analysis of Turkish Development Business by way of the Challenges and Globalization,” Group, Expertise & Administration in Development 1, 2 (2009): 12.
[9] Dorian Jones, “Turkey’s Development Sector in Disaster,” VOA Information, November 28, 2018, https://www.voanews.com/a/turkey-s-construction-sector-in-crisis/4677992.html ; Georgi Kantchev, “Constructing Increase Unravels, Deepening Turkey’s Financial Disaster,” The Wall Road Journal, September 11, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/dreams-turn-sour-as-turkeys-building-boom-sags-1536658200.
[16] Guzin Aydogan, “Internationalization of Turkish Contractors: A evaluate of 5 years.” Paper offered on the 4th Eurasian Convention on Civil and Environmental Engineering (ECOCEE). Istanbul, Turkey. June 17-18, 2019.
[17] Erdener Kaynak and Tevfik Dalgic, “Internationalization of Turkish development corporations: a lesson for third world nations?” Columbia Journal of World Enterprise 26, 4 (1992); M. Talat Birgönül, Irem Dikmen, and Beliz Özorhon, “The affect of reverse data switch on competitiveness: The Case of Turkish Contractors in Economics for the Trendy Constructed Setting,” in Les Ruddock (ed.), Economics for the Trendy Constructed Setting (London: Routledge, 2008): 212-228; and Marvin Howe, “Turkish Contractors Thrive on Overseas Constructing Initiatives,” The New York Occasions, March 20, 1982, https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/20/enterprise/turkish-contractors-thrive-on-foreign-building-projects.html.
[18] Aytaç Gökmen and Dilek Temiz, “Development Enterprise as a way to Internationalize and Develop: A Vital Evaluation of the Turkish Development Sector and Reflections on the Economic system,” Journal of Enterprise, Economics & Political Science 1, 2 (2012): 31-51.
[20] Ismail Doga Karatepe, Chapter 2, “Turkey as an Intriguing Case: Putting Turkey in an Worldwide Context, in The Cultural Political Economic system of the Development Business in Turkey (Brill, 2020): 17-32.
[22] It is very important word right here that the construction-based, finance-led development regime helped usher in a protracted interval of financial enlargement. Nonetheless, over-reliance on the development sector loans denominated in overseas foreign money, heavy dependence on imported development supplies, and sensitivity to international downturns. Some megaprojects pricey and controversial, propelled by simple overseas credit score, questionable tendering procedures, lack of public scrutiny, antagonistic environmental impacts, collateral injury to the nation’s cultural heritage, and neglect of the manufacturing sector. See: Andrew Wilks, “For Erdogan’s Istanbul Canal venture, critics see few winners,” Aljazeera, April 16, 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/economic system/2021/4/16/for-erodgans-istanbul-canal-project-critics-see-few-winners; Jonathan Gorvett, “Erdogan Is Digging a Gap He Can’t Escape,” Overseas Coverage, April 28, 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/04/28/canal-kanal-istanbul-erdogan-channel-trench-protest/; Piotr Zalewski, “Turkey’s development growth seems to be over,” Monetary Occasions, November 27, 2014, https://www.ft.com/content material/910a4a32-5093-11e4-8645-00144feab7de; Carlotta Gall, “A Canal By way of Turkey? Presidential Vote Is a Check of Erdogan’s Constructing Spree,” The New York Occasions, June 21, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/21/world/europe/turkey-election-ergodan-canal-megaprojects.html; Alexander Sekhniashvili, “Authoritarian Infrastructure Advanced: The Turkish Story,” CSIS New Views in Overseas Coverage, Subject 14 (December 20, 2017): 34-38, https://www.csis.org/npfp/authoritarian-infrastructure-complex-turkish-tale; Levent Kenez, “Turkey units circumstances in worldwide agreements in favor of businessmen near Erdoğan,” Nordic Monitor, July 6, 2021, https://nordicmonitor.com/2021/07/turkey-sets-conditions-to-international-agreements-in-favor-of-businessmen-close-to-erdogan/; Dryad World, “Erdogan’s Sinister Sport in Libya: Development Corruption,” The Investigative Journal, January 28, 2021, https://channel16.dryadglobal.com/erdogans-sinister-game-in-libya-construction-corruption.
[23] Özlem Öz, “The Aggressive Benefit of Turkey,” chapter 2, The Aggressive Benefit of Nations: The Case of Turkey (London: Routledge, 1999).
[24] Berk Esen and Sebnem Gumuscu, “Constructing a Aggressive Authoritarian Regime: State–Enterprise Relations within the AKP’s Turkey,” Journal of Balkan and Close to Jap Research 20, 4 (2018), 349-372, DOI: 10.1080/19448953.2018.1385924; Sultan Tepe and Ayça Alemdaroğlu, “How Authoritarians Win When They Lose,” Journal of Democracy 32, 4 (2021): 87-101; Daron Acemoğlu and Murat Üçer, “Excessive-High quality Versus Low-High quality Development in Turkey – Causes and Penalties,” CEPR Dialogue Papers 14070 (2019), http://www.cepr.org/energetic/publications/discussion_papers/dp.php?dpno=14070; “5 pro-gov’t development corporations granted tax incentives 128 instances in final decade,” duvaR.com, December 24, 2020, https://www.duvarenglish.com/five-turkish-pro-govt-construction-companies-granted-tax-incentives-128-times-in-last-decade-news-55618.
[25] Mehmet Özkan and Birol Akgün, “Turkey’s Opening to Africa,” The Journal of Trendy African Research 48, 4 (2010): 525-546. doi:10.1017/S0022278X10000595; Federico Donelli, “Turkey’s involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa: an empirical evaluation of multitrack strategy,” Journal of Modern African Research 40, 1 (2022): 18-33. DOI: 10.1080/02589001.2021.1900551; Mehmet Özkan, “A New Actor or Passer-By? The Political Economic system of Turkey’s Engagement with Africa,” Journal of Balkan and Close to Jap Research 14, 1 (2012): 113-133, https://doi.org/10.1080/19448953.2012.656968; Abdinor Dahir, “The Turkey-Africa Bromance: Key Drivers, Company, and Prospects,” Perception Turkey 23, 4 (2021): 27-38, https://www.insightturkey.com/file/1414/the-turkey-africa-bromance-key-drivers-agency-and-prospects; Chigoze Enwere and Mesut Yilmaz, “Turkey’s Strategic Relations with Africa: Traits and Challenges,” Journal of Economics and Political Economic system 1, 2 (2014): 216-230.
[29] Brandon J. Cannon, “Turkey’s Protection Business and Navy Gross sales in Sub-Saharan Africa: Traits, Rationale, and Outcomes,” TRENDS Analysis and Advisory, December 20, 2021, https://trendsresearch.org/perception/turkeys-defense-industry-and-military-sales-in-sub-saharan-africa-trends-rationale-and-results/; Elif Selin Calik, “Turkey’s drones diplomacy in Africa,” Al-Monitor, January 7, 2022, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220107-turkeys-drones-diplomacy-in-africa/; Ash Rossiter and Brendan J. Cannon, “Re-Analyzing the ‘Base’: The Political and Safety Dimensions of Turkey’s Navy Presence in Somalia,” Perception Turkey 21, 1 (2019): 167-188, https://www.jstor.org/secure/26776053.
[40] Lerna Okay. Yanık, “Developing Turkish ‘exceptionalism’: Discourses of Liminality and Hybridity in post-Chilly Conflict Turkish Overseas Coverage,” Political Geography 30, 2 (2011): 80-89.
[41] Mark Langan, “Virtuous Energy Turkey in sub-Saharan Africa: The “Neo-Ottoman” Problem to the European Union,” Third World Quarterly 38, 6 (2017): 1400; and Julia Harte, “Turkey Shocks Africa,” World Coverage Journal 29, 4 (2012): 27-38.
[43] Yunnan Chen, “Laying the Tracks: The political economic system of railway improvement in Ethiopia’s railway sector and implications for expertise switch,” Boston College World Growth Coverage Heart, GCI Working Paper 14 (January 2021), https://www.bu.edu/gdp/recordsdata/2021/01/GCI_WP_014_Yunnan_Chen.pdf; “Tanzania courts Turkey for its rail megaproject, casting doubt on China’s position,” World Development Evaluation, January 24, 2017, https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/tanzania-courts-turkey-its-rail-megaproject-castin/; and “Turkish agency wins contract to complete constructing Kigali centre,” The East African, April 25, 2015, https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/information/east-africa/turkish-firm-wins-contract-to-finish-building-kigali-centre–1335240.
[44] These actors embrace: Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Company (TIKA), The Overseas Financial Relations Board of Turkey (DEIK), Maarif Basis Colleges, Yunus Emre Institute, Pink Crescent, Anadolu Company, and Diyanet Basis. See Chen, “Laying the Tracks: The political economic system of railway improvement in Ethiopia’s railway sector and implications for expertise switch”; “Turkish Development Firms Assist to Transfer Africa Ahead, Actual Property Monitor Worldwide, March 16, 2020; Sinan Tavsan, “Turkey’s push into Africa has China wanting over its shoulder,” Nikkei Asia, September 15, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Worldwide-relations/Indo-Pacific/Turkey-s-push-into-Africa-has-China-looking-over-its-shoulder; Özlem Öz, “Sources of aggressive benefit of Turkish development corporations in worldwide markets,” Development Administration and Economics 19, 2 (2001): 135-144. DOI: 10.1080/01446190010009988; and Altay Atli, “Businessmen as Diplomats: The Position of Enterprise Associations in Turkey’s Overseas Financial Coverage,” Perception Turkey 13, 1 (2011): 108-128.
[46] For particulars relating to the ICIEC, which is a member of the Islamic Growth Financial institution Group, see: https://iciec.isdb.org/. See additionally: Islamic Growth Financial institution Group, “THE POWER OF PARTNERSHIPS: The ICIEC-Turkey Story,” December 2020, https://iciec.isdb.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Turkey-Strategic-Enterprise-Partnership-Eng-2019.pdf; Berne Union, “Türk Eximbank’s Expertise in Sub-Saharan Africa,” The Bulletin, June 15, 2021, https://www.berneunion.org/Articles/Particulars/582/Turk-Eximbanks-Expertise-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa; Orhan Yavuz Mavioglu et al., “Development and Initiatives in Turkey: Overview,” Thomson Reuters, September 1, 2021, https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/w-019-2661?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true; and Andrea Ayemoba, “Turkish builder indicators $1.9b railway development cope with Tanzania,” Africa Enterprise Communities, December 29, 2021, https://africabusinesscommunities.com/information/turkish-builder-signs-$1.9b-railway-construction-deal-with-tanzania/.
[48] “Turkish, Japanese enterprise circles eye additional cooperation in Africa,” Day by day Sabah, June 20, 2019, https://www.dailysabah.com/enterprise/2019/06/20/turkish-japanese-business-circles-eye-further-cooperation-in-africa; Japan Financial institution for Worldwide Cooperation (JBIC), “JBIC Holds Enterprise Matching Seminar with Türk Eximbank to Promote Cooperation between Japanese and Turkish Firms in Africa,” Press Launch, March 18, 2018, https://www.jbic.go.jp/en/info/subjects/topics-2019/0731-012388.html.
[49] “Will Turkey steal aggressive benefit from China in Africa,” Nikkei Asia, March 16, 2021, in Vestnik Kavkaza, https://en.vestikavkaza.ru/evaluation/Will-Turkey-steal-competitive-advantage-from-China-in-Africa.html; Semiha Karaoğlu, “Energy Battle within the Rising Continent of Africa,” Institute for Worldwide Technique and Info Evaluation (IISIA), Might 13, 2022, https://asiapowerwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Turkey-role-in-China-Japan-competition-in-Africa-S-Karaoglu.pdf; and Cobus van Staden, “Japan and Turkey Concentrating on China in Africa,” China World South Challenge, Might 19, 2022, https://chinaglobalsouth.com/2022/05/19/japan-and-turkey-targeting-china-in-africa/.
[50] Pınar Akpınar et al., “A brand new formulation for collaboration: Turkey, the EU & North Africa,” Sabancı and Clingendael Report (March 2022): 26-31, https://www.clingendael.org/websites/default/recordsdata/2022-03/Report_New_formula_for_collaboration_Turkey_EU_NorthAfrica.pdf.
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